Title: The Prevalence of Shigella and Enterotoxigenic E. Coli Infection amongst Patients Attending a General Hospital, North Bank Makurdi Nigeria
Authors: Agbulu, C. O, Okoko, J. A, Adokwu, .E. E
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18535/jmscr/v4i5.11
The prevalence of Enterotoxigenic E. coli and Shigella spp infection was conducted at General Hospital Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria. One hundred and eight (108) fecal specimens from consenting clinically diagnosed patients from both sexes and of all age groups were collected. Each feacal sample was inoculated onto Salmonella Shigella agar (SSA agar) and Triple sugar iron agar (TSIA). Media were incubated at 37oc for 24 hr. Isolates were identified using standard microbiological techniques. For the study data, Chi-square (χ2) or Fisher’s exact test as appropriate and odd ratio analysis were used for analysis. The prevalence of Enterotoxigenic E. coli and Shigella spp from the sample collected was 12.5% each. Favorable factors found to be associated with infection included the wetter seasons of the year and asymptomatic carriage of infection. Gender is not a statistically significant (p˃ 0.05) risk factor of infection in this study. There was a strong evidence of relationship between bacteria isolate and source of drinking water of the feacal sample. This suggests that it is necessary to drink safe and purified water free from pathogenic organisms as well as washing hands with antibacterial soap after going to the toilet or shaking hands since it can be a source for the transfer of bacteria from one person to the other. Keywords: Enterotoxigenic E.coli ,Shigella spp,General Hospital Makurdi
1. Ashkenazi, S., Levy, I., Kazaronovski V. (2003). Growing antimicrobial resistance of Shigella isolates. J Antimicrob Chemother 51:427-429 2. Beatty, M.E., Adcock, P.M., Smith, S.W. (2006). Epidemic diarrhea due to enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Clin Infect Dis; 42:329. 3. Belongia, E. A., Osterholm, M.T., Soler, J.T., Ammend, D.A., Braun, J.E. and Macdonald, K.L. (1993). Transmission of Escherichia coli O157: H7 infection in Minnesota child day-care facilities JAMA. 289: 883-888. 4. Bennish, M.L, Wojtyniak, B.J. (1991) Mortality due to shigellosis: community and hospital data. Rev Infect Dis; 13: 245–51. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli "Escherichia coli". CDC National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases. Retrieved 2014-10-02. 5. Bennish, M.L. (1991). Potentially lethal complications of shigellosis. Rev Infect Dis; 13 Suppl 4:S319. 6. Boyce, T.G., Swerdlow, D.L., and Griffin, P.M. (1995). Current concepts: Escherichia coli O157:H7 and the hemolytic uremic syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 333: 364-368. 7. Center for Diseace Control and Prevention. (2006) Accessed 4th March 2014http://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/shigellosis/ 8. Chapman, P.A. (2000). Sources of Escherichia coli O157 and experiences over the past 15 years in Sheffield, U.K. J. Appl. Microbiol., (Symposium Suppl.) 88: 51S-60S. 9. Chompook, P., Samosornsuk, S., Von Seidlein, L., Jitsanguansuk, S., Sirima, N., Sudjai S, et al.( 2005) Estimating the burden of shigellosis in Thailand: 36-month population-based surveillance study. Bull World Health Organ. ;83(10):739- 46. 10. Downes, F. P., & Ito, K. (Eds.). (2001). Compendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods (4th ed.). Washington, DC, USA: American Public Health Association. 11. Eckburg., P.B, Bik, E.M., Bernstein, CN., Purdom, E., Dethlefsen. L., Sargent, M., Gill, S.R., Nelson, K.E., Relman, D.A. (2005). "Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora".Science 308 (5728): 1635–8. doi:10.1126/science.1110591. 12. Erqou, S. A., Teferra, E., Mulu, A., & Kassu, A. (2007). A case of shigellosis with intractable septic shock and convulsions. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases, 60(5), 314-316. 13. Firdausi, Qadri, Ann-Mari Svennerholm, A. Faruque, S. G.(2005) Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in Developing Countries doi: 10.1128/CMR.18.3.465- 483. Clin. Microbiol. Vol. 18 no. 3 465-483 14. Frank, C., Werber, D., Cramer, J.P., Askar, M., Faber, M., & Heiden, M. (2011). Epidemic profile of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak in Germany. N Engl J Med. 10;365(19):1771–80. 15. Gould, L.H., Bopp, C., & Strockbine, N. (2009) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Recommendations for diagnosis of shiga toxin-- producing Escherichia coli infections by clinical laboratories. MMWRRecomm Rep. 16;58(RR-12):1-14. 16. Grondin, C., Imbert, P., Ficko C, Merens, A., Dutasta, F., Bigaillon, C. (2012) Shigella flexneri bacteremia in two immune-competent adult travelers. J Travel Med.;19(4):258-60. 17. Johnson, T. J., & Nolan, L. K. (2009). Pathogenomics of the virulence plasmids of Escherichia coli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 73(4), 750-774. 18. Kotloff, K.L. (1999). Global burden of Shigella infections: implications for vaccine development and implementation of control strategies. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 77: 651-666. 19. Kotloff, K.L., Winickoff, J.P., Ivanoff, B. (1999) Global burden of Shigella infections: implications for vaccine development and implementation of control strategies. Bull World Health Organ; 77: 651–66. 20. Kroser, J.A.. (2013). Medscape Reference. Shigellosis Workup. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/182767-workup Accessed 4th may 2014. 21. Kurjak, A., & Chervenak, F. A. (Eds.). (2006). Textbook of Perinatal Medicine (2nd ed.). United Kingdom: Informa UK Ltd. 22. Levine, M.M. (1991). Shigellosis. In: Strickland GT, HuntersTropical Medicine. 7th Edition. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co., 340-344. 23. Lim, J.Y., Yoon, J and Hovde, C.J. (2010). A brief overview of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and its plasmid O157. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol.20 (1):5-14. 24. Lukjancenko, O., Wassenaar, T.M., Ussery, D.W. (2010). "Comparison of 61 sequenced Escherichia coli genomes". Microb. Ecol. 60 25. Mandomando, I., Sigauque, B., Valles, X., Espasa, M., Sanz, S., & Sacarlal, J. (2007). Epidemiology and clinical presentation of shigellosis in children less than five years of age in rural Mozambique. Pediatr Infect Dis J. ;26(11):1059-61. 26. Marsh, J., MacLeod, A.F., Hanson, M.F., Emmanuel, F.X.S, Frost, J.A and Thomas, A.A. (1992). A restaurant-associated outbreak of E coli O157infection. J. Publ. Health Med. 14: 78-83. 27. Marsh, J., MacLeod, A.F., Hanson, M.F., Emmanuel, F.X.S, Frost, J.A and Thomas, A.A. (1992). A restaurant-associated outbreak of E coli O157infection. J. Publ. Health Med. 14: 78-83. 28. Medicinenet. (2014). Shigella Infection. Accessed May 14 2014 from www.medicinenet.com/shigella_infection/article.htm 29. Nagy, B., & Fekete, P. Z. (2005). Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in veterinary medicine. International Journal of Medical Microbiology : IJMM, 295(6-7), 443-454. 30. Nataro, J.P., Kaper, J.B. (1998) Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 11:142–201. 31. Niyogi, S.K. (2007) Increasing antimicrobial resistance—an emerging problem in the treatment of shigellosis. Clin Microbiol Infect; 13: 1141–3. 32. Okeke, I.N., Ojo, O., Lamikanra, A. and Kaper, J.B. (2003). Etiology of acute diarrhea in adults in South Western Nigeria. J. Clin. Microbiol.41:4525-30. 33. Opintan, J.A., Bishar, R.A., Newman, M.J and Okeke, I.N. (2010). Carriage of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli by older children and adults in Accra Ghana. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg.104 (7): 504-506. 34. Ostroff, S.M., Kobayashi, J. M., and Lewis, J.H. (1989). Infections with Escherichia coli O157: H7 in Washington State. The first year of statewide disease surveillance. JAMA. 262:355- 9. 35. Parashar UD, Bresee JS, Glass RI. The global burden of diarrheal disease in children. Bull World Health Organ. 2003; 81(4):236. 36. Parry, S.M, Salmon, R.L. Sporadic, STEC O157 infection: secondary household transmission in Wales. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998;4:657-61. 37. Path, P. (2013) Innovation in Enteric Vaccine Development: Addressing Bacterial Causes of Diarrhea. http://www.path.org/vaccineresources/shigella-etec.php 38. Pavia, A. T., Nichols, C. R., Green, D. P., Tauxe, R. V., Mottice, S., Greene, K. D., Wells, J. G., Siegler, R. L., Brewer, E. D., Hannon, D and Blake, P. A. (1990). Hemolytic uremic syndrome during an outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections in institutions for mentally retarded persons: clinical and epidemiological observations. J. Pediatr. 116:544–551. 39. Peirano, G., Souza, F.S,, Rodrigues, D.P.(2006) Frequency of serovars and antimicrobial resistance in Shigella spp. from Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz;101(3):245-50. 40. Pelletier, D.L., Frongillo, E.A., Jr, Schroeder, D.G., Habicht, J.P. (1995). The effects of malnutrition on child mortality in developing countries. Bull. World Health Organ.;73:443–448. [PMC free article] [PubMed] 41. Peng, J., Yang, J., Jin, Q. (2009). The molecular evolutionary history of Shigella spp. and enteroinvasive Escherichia coli. Infect Genet Evol.;9(1):147-52. 42. Public Health Agency of Canada. (2012, April). Escherichia coli. Retrevied from Public Health Agency of Canada website http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab bio/res/psds-ftss/escherichia-coli-tox-eng.php 43. Qadri, F. (2005). “Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in developing countries: epidemiology, microbiology, clinical features, treatment, and prevention.” Clinical Microbiology Reviews 18: 465-483. 44. Reiss, G, Kunz, P. Koin, D and Keeffe E.B. Escherichia coli O157:H7 45. Safewateronline.com. Travelers' diarrhea". Accesed at 4th March, 2014 from safewateronline.com http://web.archive.org/web/20080606032848/http:/www.safewateronline.co m/travelers_d.htm 46. Shears, P. (1996). Shigella infection. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 90, 105-114. 47. Singh, K. (2009). Laboratory-acquired infections. Clinical Infectious Diseases : An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, 49(1), 142-147. doi:10.1086/599104 48. Singleton, P. (1999). Bacteria in Biology, Biotechnology and Medicine (5th ed.). Wiley. pp. 444–454. ISBN 0-471-98880-4. 49. Slutsker, L., Ries, A. A., Greene, K. D., Wells, J. G., Hutwagener, L. and Griffin, P. M. (1997). Escherichia coli O157:H7 diarrhea in the United States: Clinical and epidemiologic features. Ann. Intern. Med. 126:505–513. 50. Su, C and Brandt, L.J. (1995). Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections in humans. Ann. Intern. Med. 123: 698-714. 51. Sureshbabu, J. (2012). Medscape Reference. Shigella Infection Workup. 52. Sweeney, N. (1996). The Escherichia coli K-12 gntP gene allows E. coli F- 18 to occupy a distinct nutritional niche in the streptomycin-treated mouse large intestine. Infect. Immun. 64, 3497–3503 53. Vaccine resource library, (2013) More about shigellosis and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) Retrieved from http://www.path.org/vaccineresources/shigella-etec info.php 54. Vogt, R.L., Dippold, L. (2005). "Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreak associated with consumption of ground beef, June–July 2002". Public Health Rep 120 (2): 174–8. PMC 1497708. PMID 15842119. 55. Wang, .H. (2009). Epidemiological study on an outbreak caused by E. coli O157:H7 in Jiangsu province. Chin J Epidemiol 25(11):938-940 56. WebMD, Medical. (2012). Retrieved on July 06, 2012 http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/travelers-diarrhea?page=3 57. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2014, January 30). FL: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. retrieved January 30, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigella 58. World Health Organization, (2001). Antimicrobial resistance in shigellosis, cholera and campylobacteriosis. WHO/CDS/CSR/ DRS/2001.8. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. 59. World Health Organization. (2013). Diarrhoeal disease. Retrevied from World Health Organization website. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/ 60. Wright, A. (2005). Associate Professor of Food Microbiology University of Florida Food Science and Human Nutrition Department http://www.epi.ufl.edu/?q=node/38 61. Yabuuchi, E. (2002). Bacillus dysentericus (sic) 1897 was the first rather than Bacillus dysenteriae 1898. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol., 52, 1041-1041
Abstract
References
